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  </header><main class="col-sm-12 col-md-9 col-lg-7" id="content"><div id="v" class="section level1" number="23">
<h1>
<span class="header-section-number">23</span> V<a class="anchor" aria-label="anchor" href="#v"><i class="fas fa-link"></i></a>
</h1>

<div id="value" class="section level2" number="23.1">
<h2>
<span class="header-section-number">23.1</span> value<a class="anchor" aria-label="anchor" href="#value"><i class="fas fa-link"></i></a>
</h2>
<p><dfn>A single number or piece of data.</dfn></p>
<p>In a tidy dataset, each cell contains only one value.</p>
<p>The <code>age</code> column contains 3 values: mean, minimum and maximum.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb216"><pre class="downlit sourceCode r">
<code class="sourceCode R"><span class="kw"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/base/library.html">library</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="va"><a href="https://dplyr.tidyverse.org">dplyr</a></span><span class="op">)</span>
<span class="kw"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/base/library.html">library</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="va"><a href="https://tidyr.tidyverse.org">tidyr</a></span><span class="op">)</span>

<span class="va">untidy</span> <span class="op">&lt;-</span> <span class="fu"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/base/data.frame.html">data.frame</a></span><span class="op">(</span>
  group <span class="op">=</span> <span class="fu"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/base/c.html">c</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="st">"A"</span>, <span class="st">"B"</span><span class="op">)</span>,
  age <span class="op">=</span> <span class="fu"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/base/c.html">c</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="st">"20.4 [18-25]"</span>, <span class="st">"19.9 [18-24]"</span><span class="op">)</span>
<span class="op">)</span></code></pre></div>
<div class="inline-table"><table class="table table-sm">
<thead><tr>
<th style="text-align:left;">
group
</th>
<th style="text-align:left;">
age
</th>
</tr></thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
A
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;">
20.4 [18-25]
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
B
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;">
19.9 [18-24]
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table></div>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb217"><pre class="downlit sourceCode r">
<code class="sourceCode R"><span class="va">tidy</span> <span class="op">&lt;-</span> <span class="va">untidy</span> <span class="op"><a href="https://rdrr.io/pkg/magrittr/man/pipe.html">%&gt;%</a></span>
  <span class="fu"><a href="https://rdrr.io/pkg/tidyr/man/separate.html">separate</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="va">age</span>, <span class="fu"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/base/c.html">c</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="st">"mean"</span>, <span class="st">"min"</span>, <span class="st">"max"</span><span class="op">)</span>, 
           sep <span class="op">=</span> <span class="st">"( \\[|-|\\])"</span>,
           extra <span class="op">=</span> <span class="st">"drop"</span><span class="op">)</span></code></pre></div>
<div class="inline-table"><table class="table table-sm">
<thead><tr>
<th style="text-align:left;">
group
</th>
<th style="text-align:left;">
mean
</th>
<th style="text-align:left;">
min
</th>
<th style="text-align:left;">
max
</th>
</tr></thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
A
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;">
20.4
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;">
18
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;">
25
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
B
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;">
19.9
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;">
18
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;">
24
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table></div>
</div>
<div id="variable" class="section level2" number="23.2">
<h2>
<span class="header-section-number">23.2</span> variable<a class="anchor" aria-label="anchor" href="#variable"><i class="fas fa-link"></i></a>
</h2>
<p><dfn>A word that identifies and stores the value of some data for later use.</dfn></p>
<p>Variables in R are usually referred to as objects. See the definition for <a href="o.html#object">object</a>.</p>

</div>
<div id="variance" class="section level2" number="23.3">
<h2>
<span class="header-section-number">23.3</span> variance<a class="anchor" aria-label="anchor" href="#variance"><i class="fas fa-link"></i></a>
</h2>
<p><dfn>A <a href="d.html#descriptive">descriptive</a> statistic for how much an average data point varies from the mean.</dfn></p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb218"><pre class="downlit sourceCode r">
<code class="sourceCode R"><span class="va">data</span> <span class="op">&lt;-</span> <span class="fu"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/base/c.html">c</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="fl">1</span>,<span class="fl">2</span>,<span class="fl">3</span>,<span class="fl">4</span>,<span class="fl">5</span>,<span class="fl">6</span>,<span class="fl">7</span>,<span class="fl">8</span>,<span class="fl">9</span><span class="op">)</span>
<span class="fu"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/stats/cor.html">var</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="va">data</span><span class="op">)</span>
<span class="co">#&gt; [1] 7.5</span></code></pre></div>
<p>Variance is equal to <a href="s.html#standard-deviation">standard deviation</a> squared.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb219"><pre class="downlit sourceCode r">
<code class="sourceCode R"><span class="fu"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/stats/sd.html">sd</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="va">data</span><span class="op">)</span><span class="op">^</span><span class="fl">2</span>
<span class="co">#&gt; [1] 7.5</span></code></pre></div>
<p>You calculate variance by summing the squared differences between each data point and their mean (<code>sum(diff^2)</code>) and dividing this by the number of data points minus 1 (<code>(n-1)</code>)</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb220"><pre class="downlit sourceCode r">
<code class="sourceCode R"><span class="va">m</span> <span class="op">&lt;-</span> <span class="fu"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/base/mean.html">mean</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="va">data</span><span class="op">)</span>   <span class="co"># calculate the mean</span>
<span class="va">diff</span> <span class="op">&lt;-</span> <span class="va">data</span> <span class="op">-</span> <span class="va">m</span>  <span class="co"># difference between each data point and the mean</span>
<span class="va">n</span> <span class="op">&lt;-</span> <span class="fu"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/base/length.html">length</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="va">data</span><span class="op">)</span> <span class="co"># number of data points</span>
<span class="fu"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/base/sum.html">sum</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="va">diff</span><span class="op">^</span><span class="fl">2</span><span class="op">)</span><span class="op">/</span><span class="op">(</span><span class="va">n</span><span class="op">-</span><span class="fl">1</span><span class="op">)</span> <span class="co"># variance</span>
<span class="co">#&gt; [1] 7.5</span></code></pre></div>

</div>
<div id="vector" class="section level2" number="23.4">
<h2>
<span class="header-section-number">23.4</span> vector<a class="anchor" aria-label="anchor" href="#vector"><i class="fas fa-link"></i></a>
</h2>
<p><dfn>A type of data structure that collects values with the same <a href="d.html#data-type">data type</a>, like T/F values, numbers, or strings.</dfn></p>
<p>The following things are examples of vectors:</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb221"><pre class="downlit sourceCode r">
<code class="sourceCode R"><span class="co"># use the c() function to make a vector of strings or numbers</span>
<span class="va">ingredients</span> <span class="op">&lt;-</span> <span class="fu"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/base/c.html">c</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="st">"vodka"</span>, <span class="st">"gin"</span>, <span class="st">"rum"</span>, <span class="st">"tequila"</span>, <span class="st">"triple sec"</span>, 
                      <span class="st">"orange juice"</span>, <span class="st">"coke"</span>, <span class="st">"sour mix"</span><span class="op">)</span>

<span class="va">fun_to_play_at</span> <span class="op">&lt;-</span> <span class="fu"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/base/c.html">c</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="fl">25</span>, <span class="fl">13</span>, <span class="fl">3</span>, <span class="fl">1</span><span class="op">)</span>

<span class="co"># the colon between two integers gives you all the numbers from the first to the last integer</span>
<span class="va">likert</span> <span class="op">&lt;-</span> <span class="fl">1</span><span class="op">:</span><span class="fl">7</span></code></pre></div>
<p><a href="e.html#element">Elements</a> are always the same data type. If you try to combine values with different data types, they are <a href="c.html#coercion">coerced</a> into a common data type. Use a <a href="l.html#list">list</a> to combine values with different types without coercion.</p>
<p>The variable <code>letters</code> is a built-in vector with the Latin letters in order. You can select part of a vector by putting the numeric location (or <a href="i.html#index">index</a>) of what <a href="e.html#element">element</a> you want inside of square brackets after the vector. You can even put a vector of numbers inside the square <a href="b.html#brackets">brackets</a> to select several elements.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb222"><pre class="downlit sourceCode r">
<code class="sourceCode R"><span class="va">letters</span><span class="op">[</span><span class="fl">26</span><span class="op">]</span>
<span class="co">#&gt; [1] "z"</span>
<span class="va">letters</span><span class="op">[</span><span class="fl">1</span><span class="op">:</span><span class="fl">5</span><span class="op">]</span>
<span class="co">#&gt; [1] "a" "b" "c" "d" "e"</span>
<span class="va">letters</span><span class="op">[</span><span class="va">fun_to_play_at</span><span class="op">]</span>
<span class="co">#&gt; [1] "y" "m" "c" "a"</span></code></pre></div>
<p>See <a href="http://r4ds.had.co.nz/vectors.html" target="_blank">Ch 20 of R for Data Science</a> for a thorough explanation of vectors.</p>

</div>
<div id="vectorized" class="section level2" number="23.5">
<h2>
<span class="header-section-number">23.5</span> vectorized<a class="anchor" aria-label="anchor" href="#vectorized"><i class="fas fa-link"></i></a>
</h2>
<p><dfn>An <a href="o.html#operator">operator</a> or <a href="f.html#function">function</a> that acts on each <a href="e.html#element">element</a> in a <a href="v.html#vector">vector</a></dfn></p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb223"><pre class="downlit sourceCode r">
<code class="sourceCode R"><span class="co"># Add 10 to each element in the vector a</span>
<span class="va">a</span> <span class="op">&lt;-</span> <span class="fl">1</span><span class="op">:</span><span class="fl">5</span>
<span class="va">a</span> <span class="op">+</span> <span class="fl">10</span>
<span class="co">#&gt; [1] 11 12 13 14 15</span>

<span class="co"># paste "!" to the end of each element in the vector b</span>
<span class="va">b</span> <span class="op">&lt;-</span> <span class="fu"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/base/c.html">c</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="st">"Hey"</span>, <span class="st">"You"</span><span class="op">)</span>
<span class="fu"><a href="https://rdrr.io/r/base/paste.html">paste0</a></span><span class="op">(</span><span class="va">b</span>, <span class="st">"!"</span><span class="op">)</span>
<span class="co">#&gt; [1] "Hey!" "You!"</span></code></pre></div>

</div>
<div id="version-control" class="section level2" number="23.6">
<h2>
<span class="header-section-number">23.6</span> version control<a class="anchor" aria-label="anchor" href="#version-control"><i class="fas fa-link"></i></a>
</h2>
<p><dfn>A way to save a record of changes to your files.</dfn></p>
<p><a href="g.html#git">Git</a> is one type of version control that is most commonly used with RStudio. <a href="g.html#github">GitHub</a> is a cloud-based service for storing and sharing your version controlled files.</p>
<p><a href="https://debruine.github.io/tutorials/git-and-github.html">Set up git and github</a> with RStudio.</p>

</div>
</div>
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